Irene Skau

• Linde, Astrid de; Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Skau, Irene & Kinge, Jonas Minet (2025). Maternity Ward Closures and Infant Health Outcomes, Maternal Health Outcomes, and Birth Procedures. Health Economics. ISSN 1057-9230. 35(2), p. 360–376. doi: 10.1002/hec.70053. Full text in Research Archive
• Jiang, Nan; Kinge, Jonas Minet; Skau, Irene & Grytten, Jostein Ivar (2025). COVID-19 and access to subsidized dental care according to household income. A register-based population study from Norway. Acta Odontologica Scandinavica. ISSN 0001-6357. 84, p. 600–606. doi: 10.2340/aos.v84.44938. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Objective: The objective of this study was to examine inequalities in access to subsidized dental care according to household income before, during and after the COVID-19 lockdown in Norway. Material and methods: Our data encompassed all individuals aged 20 years and above (n = 3,977,747). The data were analyzed using a linear probability model. The outcome variable was whether an individual had received subsidized dental care, and the main independent variable was net household income. Analyses were carried out with and without the following control variables: gender, age (fixed effects), level of education, immigrant background and place of residence (fixed effects for county). Inequalities were measured using concentration indices. Results: The proportion of adults who received subsidized dental care was 3.10% before lockdown, 0.47% during lockdown and 2.15% after lockdown. The concentration indices were small. The unstandardized concentration indices (without control variables included) were: 0.04 before, 0.002 during and 0.04 after lockdown. The standardized concentration indices (with control variables included) were: 0.02 before, −0.007 during and 0.02 after lockdown. We carried out several supplementary analyses. They all supported our main findings. Conclusion: The lockdown did not lead to inequalities in access to subsidized dental care in Norway according to income.

• Grytten, Jostein Ivar & Skau, Irene (2025). Mothers’ level of education and infant health. Causal effects of the introduction of a school reform in Norway. Social Science and Medicine. ISSN 0277-9536. 386. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2025.118632. Full text in Research Archive
• Linde, Astrid de; Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Skau, Irene & Kinge, Jonas Minet (2024). Maternity ward closures and infant health outcomes, maternal health outcomes, and birth procedures. HERO skriftserie / Working paper. ISSN 1501-9071. Full text in Research Archive
• Holden, Mari Brekke; Skau, Irene & Grytten, Jostein Ivar (2024). Forbruket av tannhelsetjenester i voksenbefolkningen 20-70 år - mye kontroller og mindre behandling. Den norske tannlegeforenings Tidende. ISSN 0029-2303. 134, p. 796–805. doi: 10.56373/2024-10-3. Full text in Research Archive
• Eskild, Anne; Skau, Irene; Haavaldsen, Camilla; Saugstad, Ola Didrik & Grytten, Jostein Ivar (2024). Short inter-pregnancy interval and birthweight: a reappraisal based on a follow-up study of all women in Norway with two singleton deliveries during 1970–2019. European Journal of Epidemiology (EJE). ISSN 0393-2990. 39(8), p. 905–914. doi: 10.1007/s10654-024-01148-y. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  We studied mean changes in birthweight from the first to the second delivery according to length of the inter-pregnancy interval. We also studied recurrence risk of low birthweight, preterm birth and perinatal death. We followed all women in Norway from their first to their second singleton delivery at gestational week 22 or beyond during the years 1970–2019, a total of 654 100 women. Data were obtained from the Medical Birth Registry of Norway. Mean birthweight increased from the first to the second delivery, and the increase was highest in pregnancies conceived < 6 months after the first delivery; adjusted mean birthweight increase 227 g (g) (95% CI; 219–236 g), 90 g higher than in pregnancies conceived 6–11 months after the first delivery (137 g (95% CI; 130–144 g)). After exclusion of women with a first stillbirth, the mean increase in birthweight at inter-pregnancy interval < 6 months was attenuated (152 g, 95% CI; 143–160 g), but remained higher than at longer inter-pregnancy intervals. This finding was particularly prominent in women > 35 years (218 g, 95% CI; 139 –298 g). In women with a first live born infant weighing < 2500 g, mean birthweight increased by around 1000 g to the second delivery, and the increase was most prominent at < 6 months inter-pregnancy interval. We found increased recurrence risk of preterm birth at inter-pregnancy interval < 6 months, but no increased recurrence risk of low birthweight, small for gestational age infant or perinatal death. In conclusion, we found the highest mean increase in birthweight when the inter-pregnancy interval was short. Our results do not generally discourage short pregnancy intervals.

• Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Skau, Irene & Sørensen, Rune Jørgen (2023). Fertility and immigration: Do immigrant mothers hand down their fertility pattern to the next generation? Evidence from Norway. Economics and Human Biology. ISSN 1570-677X. 52. doi: 10.1016/j.ehb.2023.101339. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  We examined whether the fertility pattern of immigrant mothers is handed down to the next generation. Our analyses were carried out on population register data. These data contained information on all immigrants to Norway from 123 countries during the period 1935–1995. We examined whether there was a relationship between the fertility rate in the country of origin and the number of children for generations 1.5 and 2 in Norway. We estimated three models: fixed effects for country of origin, fixed effects for region, and no fixed effects. The three specifications yielded estimates with overlapping confidence intervals. We interpret the estimates from the models with fixed effects for region, and the model with no fixed effects as upper-bound estimates. They show that an increase of 1.00 in the fertility rate in the country of origin leads to an average increase in the number of children of 0.12 (no fixed effects) or 0.14 (fixed effects for region) for immigrant women in generations 1.5 and 2. The estimate from the model with fixed effects for country of origin was small and not statistically significant at the conventional level. We interpret this as a lower-bound estimate. Our upper-bound estimates for generations 1.5 and 2 are smaller than the estimates for generation 1, i.e. there has been a decrease in the fertility rate from the first to the second generation. As a result, if the proportion of the population with an immigrant background continues to increase, it may increase at a slower rate in the future.

• Jiang, Nan; Kinge, Jonas Minet; Skau, Irene & Grytten, Jostein Ivar (2023). Reduserer subsidiert kjeveortopedisk behandling ulikheter i tilgang? Funn fra Norge basert på folkeregisterdata. Den norske tannlegeforenings Tidende. ISSN 0029-2303. 133, p. 906–906. Full text in Research Archive
• Jiang, Nan; Kinge, Jonas Minet; Skau, Irene & Grytten, Jostein Ivar (2023). Does subsidized orthodontic treatment reduce inequalities in access? Evidence from Norway based on population register data. Community Dentistry and Oral Epidemiology. ISSN 0301-5661. doi: 10.1111/cdoe.12918. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Abstract Objective An important part of Norwegian welfare policy is to provide subsidized orthodontic treatment for children and adolescents. The objective of this policy is that dental services should be allocated according to children's need for treatment, and not according to parents' ability to pay. The probability of receiving orthodontic treatment independent of parent's household income was examined. Methods The study population encompassed children and adolescents aged 10–18 years in 2019 ( n  = 354 439). Information about whether they had started orthodontic treatment was obtained from the Norwegian Health Economics Administration. The key independent variable was net equalized household income. Inequalities were measured using concentration indices, which were estimated according to the severity of the malocclusion (very great need, great need, obvious need and no need). Two indices were used to measure relative inequality: the unstandardized concentration index and the partial concentration index. Absolute inequality was measured using the corrected concentration index. Relevant control variables were included in some of the analyses. Results The unstandardized indices were in the range 0.04 (very great need) to 0.05 (obvious need). For all three groups of severity, the 95% confidence intervals overlapped. The values of the partial indices were significantly lower than the values of the unstandardized indices. The partial indices were in the range 0.008 (very great need) to 0.03 (obvious need). The 95% confidence intervals for the partial indices did not overlap with the 95% confidence intervals of the unstandardized indices. For all three groups of severity, the indices that measured absolute inequality were close to zero. Conclusions It is possible to achieve the egalitarian aim of equality in service provision by subsidizing orthodontic treatment. This is possible within a system where the cost of orthodontic treatment is reimbursed according to the criteria of need. These criteria function in such a way that patients with the greatest need for orthodontic treatment are given the highest priority.

• Eskild, Anne; Skau, Irene; Grytten, Jostein Ivar & Haavaldsen, Camilla (2023). Inter-pregnancy interval and placental weight. A population based follow-up study in Norway. Placenta. ISSN 0143-4004. 144, p. 38–44. doi: 10.1016/j.placenta.2023.11.003. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Introduction We studied changes in placental weight from the first to the second delivery according to length of the inter-pregnancy interval. Methods We followed all women in Norway from their first to their second successive singleton pregnancy during the years 1999–2019, a total of 271 184 women. We used data from the Medical Birth Registry of Norway and studied changes in placental weight (in grams (g)) according to the length of the inter-pregnancy. Adjustments were made for year and maternal age at first delivery, changes in the prevalence of maternal diseases (hypertension and diabetes), and a new father to the second pregnancy. Results Mean placental weight increased from 655 g at the first delivery to 680 g at the second. The adjusted increase in placental weight was highest at inter-pregnancy intervals <6 months; 38.2 g (95 % CI 33.0g–43.4 g) versus 23.2 g (95 % CI 18.8g–27.7 g) at inter-pregnancy interval 6–17 months. At inter-pregnancy intervals ≥18 months, placental weight remained higher than at the first delivery, but was non-different from inter-pregnancy intervals 6–17 months. Also, after additional adjustment for daily smoking and body mass index in sub-samples, we found the highest increase in placental weight at the shortest inter-pregnancy interval. We estimated no difference in gestational age at delivery or placental to birthweight ratio according to inter-pregnancy interval. Discussion Placental weight increased from the first to the second pregnancy, and the increase was most pronounced at short inter-pregnancy intervals. The biological causes and implications of such findings remain to be studied.

• Fardal, Øystein; Skau, Irene & Grytten, Jostein Ivar (2023). A 30-year retrospective cohort outcome study of periodontal treatment of stages III and IV patients in a private practice. Journal of Clinical Periodontology. ISSN 0303-6979. 52, p. 102–112. doi: 10.1111/jcpe.13877. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Abstract Aim Tooth loss studies show that periodontal treatment is effective. However, it is not known whether these results can be projected into a lifetime of treatment. The aim of the study was to study all patients with stages III/IV of periodontitis over 30 years in a private practice. Materials and Methods All patients referred between 1986 and 1990 were monitored for 30 years for tooth loss and prognostic factors. All dropouts were accounted for. Results In all, 386 patients were followed, of whom 283 patients dropped out, leaving 103 patients (67 females and 36 males, average age 40.1 years) monitored over 30 years. Tooth loss was stable until 16 years, when the population was divided into groups of low ( n  = 65), moderate ( n  = 18) and high ( n  = 20) tooth loss, losing 1.05 (SD 1.27), 4.83 (SD 0.96) and 11.90 (SD 4.25) teeth, respectively. The strongest prognostic factors were first‐degree relatives with periodontitis, periodontal treatment before the age of 35 years, diabetes and patients with teeth with initial hopeless prognosis. Conclusion The majority of patients with stages III and IV periodontitis could be successfully treated with conventional periodontal treatment over a period of 30 years. The findings suggest that retrospective studies with shorter observation times cannot automatically be projected onto the outcome of a lifetime of periodontal treatment.

• Blix, Ellen; Eskild, Anne; Skau, Irene & Grytten, Jostein Ivar (2022). The impact of the introduction of intrapartum fetal ECG ST segment analysis. A population study. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica. ISSN 0001-6349. 101(7), p. 809–818. doi: 10.1111/aogs.14347. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Introduction ST segment analysis (STAN) of the fetal electrocardiogram was introduced as an adjunct to cardiotocography for intrapartum fetal monitoring 30 years ago. We examined the impact of the introduction of STAN on changes in the occurrence of fetal and neonatal deaths, Apgar scores of <7 at 5 min, intrapartum cesarean sections, and instrumental vaginal deliveries while controlling for time- and hospital-specific trends and maternal risk factors. Material and Methods Data were retrieved from the Medical Birth Registry of Norway from 1985 to 2014. Individual data were linked to the Education Registry and the Central Person Registry. The study sample included 1 132 022 singleton births with a gestational age of 36 weeks or beyond. Information about the year of STAN introduction was collected from every birth unit in Norway using a questionnaire. Our data structure consisted of a hospital-year panel. We applied a linear probability model with hospital-fixed effects and with adjustment for potentially confounding factors. The prevalence of the outcomes before and after the introduction of STAN were compared within each birth unit. Results In total, 23 birth units, representing 76% of all births in Norway, had introduced the STAN technology. During the study period, stillbirths declined from 2.6 to 1.9 per 1000 births, neonatal deaths declined from 1.7 to 0.7 per 1000 live births, babies with Apgar score <7 at 5 min after birth increased from 7.4 to 9.5 per 1000 births, intrapartum cesarean sections increased from 6.4% to 9.5%, and instrumental vaginal deliveries increased from 7.8% to 10.9%. Our analyses found that the introduction of STAN was not associated with the decline in proportion of stillbirths (p =0.76) and neonatal deaths (p =0.76) or with the increase in intrapartum cesarean sections (p =0.92) and instrumental vaginal deliveries (p =0.78). However, it was associated with the increased occurrence of Apgar score <7 at 5 min (p =0.01). Conclusions There is no evidence that the introduction of STAN contributed to changes in the rates of stillbirths, neonatal deaths, intrapartum cesarean sections, or instrumental vaginal deliveries. There was an association between the introduction of STAN and a small increase in neonates with low Apgar scores.

• Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Listl, Stefan & Skau, Irene (2022). Do Norwegian private dental practitioners with too few patients compensate for their loss of income by providing more services or by raising their fees? Community Dentistry and Oral Epidemiology. ISSN 0301-5661. p. 1–8. doi: 10.1111/cdoe.12750. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Objective In Norway, supply of dental services exceeds demand, mainly because of the marked improvement in dental health during the last few decades. The aim of the study was to investigate whether private dental practitioners counteract a fall in demand for their services by providing more services or by raising their fees. Methods The data were collected using a questionnaire that was sent to all private dental practitioners in Norway. Altogether 1237 practitioners responded, which gave a response rate of 56%. Our sample was representative of the population of practitioners in Norway. As a measure of patient supply, responses from the following questions were used: ‘Based on an overall assessment of economy, workload and other personal factors, is the number of regular patients adequate? If not, do you wish to have more patients, or fewer patients?’ The outcome variables were dental fees, length of recall interval and mean cost per visit. The data were analysed using ordinary least square regression and a linear probability model. The following characteristics of the private dental practitioners were included as control variables: age, gender, work experience in years and whether they worked in a solo practice. To test the robustness of the findings, a supplementary analysis with the patient as the unit of analysis was carried out, using survey data of Norwegians aged 20 years and older. Based on this survey, the relationship between population: dentist ratio and mean cost per dental visit were examined. Results Nearly 40% of all practitioners reported that they had too few patients. They compensated for their loss of income by raising their fees, by recalling their patients more often and by increasing the cost per visit. The finding in the supplementary analysis using survey data from patients was similar to the findings in the main analyses using survey data from private dental practitioners. Conclusion The findings show that practitioners have market power. They were able to counteract a fall in demand for their services by providing more services and by raising their fees. The dental profession should be encouraged to provide appropriate services, in the present situation where supply exceeds demand.

• Fardal, Øystein; Skau, Irene; Nevland, Kristian & Grytten, Jostein Ivar (2021). Proposing a model for auditing data quality of long-term periodontal outcome studies. Acta Odontologica Scandinavica. ISSN 0001-6357. 80(5), p. 375–381. doi: 10.1080/00016357.2021.2020895. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Objective The assessment of the success of conventional periodontal therapy is based on retrospective studies from private practice and university clinics. Due to their marked heterogeneity, it is difficult to assess the data quality and rate these studies. The aim is to test a model for auditing and rating the data quality of periodontal outcome studies. Methods The method was adapted from the NIH Health Care Systems Collaboratory model, which uses three data quality dimensions: completeness (including all the relevant variables), consistency (ensuring that the same variables are compared) and accuracy (proportion of data in error with a gold standard). The model was applied to studies from a Norwegian specialist practice and data from the Norwegian Health database to test if the auditing process was workable using real world data. Results Forty-seven risk and prognostic factors were included for completeness. Seven variables were specified for consistency: tooth loss, smoking, systemic conditions, oral hygiene, individual tooth prognosis, maintenance profiles and timing of extractions. The factors tested showed a 95.7% completeness and an average accuracy deviation from the gold standard of −2.3% for each of the risk/prognostic factors and an overall study score of 93.3%. Conclusions It was possible to develop a method for auditing and rating the quality of periodontal outcome studies. The model was tested using both real world data including risk and prognostic factors from individual outcome studies and national big data. The application of the model to these sets of data showed a high accuracy of the risk/prognostic factors and a close relationship with national big data.

• Grytten, Jostein & Skau, Irene (2021). Improvements in Dental Health and Dentists’ Workload in Norway, 1992 to 2015. International Dental Journal. ISSN 0020-6539. doi: 10.1016/j.identj.2021.07.004. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Objectives There has been a marked improvement in dental health in Norway during the last few decades. What effect has this had on provision of dental services, and how has private dental practitioners’ assessment of their workload changed? Methods The data were from 2 large surveys of private dental practitioners carried out in 1992 (n = 1056) and 2015 (n = 1237). An analysis of nonresponders showed that they were evenly distributed according to their age, gender, and the region in which their practice was located. Thus, the samples were representative of private dental practitioners. For 1 representative week in practice, the practitioners were asked to report the number of visits and the number of patients who received 1 or more of the following items of treatment: filling, crown, bridge, denture, root filling, extraction, and periodontal treatment. As a measure of patient supply, the responses from the following questions were used: “Based on an overall assessment of economy, workload, and other personal factors, is the number of regular patients adequate? If not, do you wish to have more patients or fewer patients?” Results From 1992 to 2015, the annual number of visits per practitioner decreased by 23%. The number of patients per practitioner who received fillings, crowns, bridges, dentures, root fillings, or extractions decreased by 50% or more. The decrease was largest for practitioners younger than 35 years and for men. The proportion of practitioners who reported a deficit of patients increased from 20% to 37%. Conclusions Many dentists will have too few patients and a fall in income in the years to come is expected.

• Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Skau, Irene & Eskild, Anne (2021). Does the use of Doppler ultrasound reduce fetal mortality? A population study of all deliveries in Norway 1990-2014. International Journal of Epidemiology. ISSN 0300-5771. 50(6), p. 2038–2047. doi: 10.1093/ije/dyab098. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Abstract Background The aim of the present study was to examine the effect that the introduction of Doppler ultrasound in obstetric care has had on fetal death in Norway. One mechanism by which Doppler ultrasound may reduce fetal death may be through the increased use of Caesarean delivery. Therefore, we also examined the effect that the use of Doppler ultrasound has had on the use of Caesarean delivery. Methods The Medical Birth Registry of Norway provided detailed medical information for ∼1.2 million deliveries from 1990 to 2014. Information about the year of introduction of Doppler ultrasound was collected directly from the maternity units, using a questionnaire. The data were analysed using a hospital fixed-effects regression model with fetal death as the outcome measure. The key independent variable was the introduction of Doppler ultrasound at each maternity ward. Hospital-specific trends and risk factors of the mother for fetal death were included as covariates. Results For pre-term deliveries, the introduction of Doppler ultrasound contributed to a reduction in fetal death of ∼30% and to an increase in planned Caesarean section of ∼15%. There were no effects for emergency Caesarean sections or inductions pre-term. The introduction of Doppler ultrasound had no effect on fetal death or Caesarean section for term deliveries. Conclusions The introduction of Doppler ultrasound during the 1990s and 2000s made a significant contribution to the decline in the number of pre-term fetal deaths in Norway. Increased use of Caesarean section may have contributed to this reduction.

• Grytten, Jostein Ivar & Skau, Irene (2021). Forbedringer i tannhelsen og tannlegenes arbeidsmengde i Norge 1992-2015. Den norske tannlegeforenings Tidende. ISSN 0029-2303. 131( ), p. 1014–1015. Full text in Research Archive
• Eskild, Anne; Skau, Irene; Haavaldsen, Camilla & Grytten, Jostein Ivar (2021). A.Eskild og medarbeiderne svarer. Tidsskrift for Den norske legeforening (Tidsskriftet). ISSN 0029-2001. 141(12). doi: 10.4045/tidsskr.21.0584. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Skau, Irene & Sørensen, Rune Jørgen (2020). Who dies early? Education, mortality and causes of death in Norway. Social Science and Medicine. ISSN 0277-9536. 245. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112601. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  We estimated the effects of education on mortality and causes of death in Norway. We identified causal effects by exploiting the staggered implementation of a school reform that increased the length of compulsory education from seven to nine years. The municipality-level education data were combined with complete records of all deaths from 1960 to 2015 from the Norwegian Cause of Death Registry. These data covered the entire life span of persons aged 16–64. One additional year of education caused a reduction in mortality of about 10% for men. The effect was negligible for women. For men, a large part of the effect was due to fewer accidental deaths. We suggest two explanations for this finding. First, there are differences in risk-taking behaviour between people with a high level of education and those with a low level. Second, more education leads to upward occupational mobility. This mobility is mainly from occupations for which the risk of accidents is high to occupations for which the risk is low. Our results supported the fundamental cause theory. This is because education had a stronger effect on mortality for causes of death that are preventable than for causes of death that are not preventable. More education had no effect on the probability of dying of diseases that were amenable to medical intervention only. This gives some support to our results that patients are treated equally, independent of their level of education. This may be due to the large public involvement in financing and provision of health services.

• Fardal, Øystein; Skau, Irene; Rongen, Gunnar; Heasman, Peter & Grytten, Jostein Ivar (2020). Treatment provision of periodontal diseases in Norway in 2013 - a national profile. International Dental Journal. ISSN 0020-6539. 70(4), p. 266–276. doi: 10.1111/idj.12565. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background Epidemiological studies have reported high levels of periodontal diseases worldwide. Over the last 40 years, Norway has introduced several measures including major financial support to reduce periodontal diseases. The aims of this study were to establish the present level of periodontal treatment, the treatment profiles for the nation, and to assess if long‐term clinical data support the findings. Materials and methods The database of the Norwegian Health Economic Administration for 2013 was analysed to establish the prevalence of treated periodontitis in a cross‐sectional register‐based study. Treatment profiles including patients' ages, gender, geographic distributions, treatment types, prosthetic tooth replacements and the treatment distributions between the dental health professionals were assessed. Results 4.4% of the 20 years and older age group was treated for periodontitis. More females (55%) than males (45%) were treated with predominance in the 60–69 year age group. Private general dental practitioners performed 43.8% of the total periodontal treatment, while dental hygienists performed 22.5%. Periodontists performed 32.8% of the non‐surgical and 74.6% of the surgical treatment. Tooth replacements for teeth lost due to periodontal diseases were provided for 0.57% of the population. Clinical studies from Norway showed marked improvements in the periodontal parameters examined over the last 40 years. Conclusion The frequency of periodontal treatments in Norway was low, but sufficient to maintain major tooth retention for the population. Long‐term external clinical data supported these findings. The treatments were well distributed between private general dental practitioners, hygienists and periodontists.

• Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Pervaiz, Maryam; Rongen, Gunnar & Skau, Irene (2020). De unge voksnes tannhelse - hvor stort er deres behandlingsbehov? En analyse av studenter som var pasienter hos SiO Helse Tannlege i perioden 2007-2018. Den norske tannlegeforenings Tidende. ISSN 0029-2303. 130, p. 904–912. Full text in Research Archive
• Fardal, Øystein; Skau, Irene; Rongen, Gunnar; Heasman, Peter & Grytten, Jostein Ivar (2020). Provision of treatment for periodontitis in Norway in 2013 – a national profile. International Dental Journal. ISSN 0020-6539. 70(4), p. 266–276. doi: 10.1111/idj.12565. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar & Skau, Irene (2020). Educational inequalities in access to fixed prosthodontic treatment in Norway. Causal effects using the introduction of a school reform as an instrumental variable. Social Science and Medicine. ISSN 0277-9536. 260. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113105. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Objectives Equality in access to dental services, independent of level of education, is an important aim of Scandinavian welfare policy. In Norway, this policy is the main justification for a dental public subsidy scheme for adults. An important part of the subsidy scheme is to cover the cost of fixed prosthodontic treatment, including implant-based crowns and bridges for premolars, canines and incisors. A stated policy goal is to secure equal access to everybody in need of these services, independent of their level of education. The aim of this study was to estimate the causal effect of education on the probability of receiving fixed prosthodontic treatment in the adult Norwegian population. Methods During the period 1960–1972, all municipalities in Norway were required to increase the number of compulsory years of education from seven to nine years. We used this education reform as the instrumental variable to create exogenous variation in the individual's number of years of education. The education data were combined with data from the Norwegian Health Economics Administration, which contained our outcome variable. Our sample included individuals with 9 years education or less. Altogether 113 237 individuals were included in the study. Results For men, the first stage regression coefficient was 0.87 (confidence interval: 0.82–0.92). This means that the reform resulted in 0.87 additional years of education. For men, the probability of receiving fixed prosthodontic treatment increased by 0.67 percentage points per additional year of schooling. For women, the first stage regression coefficient was 0.84 (confidence interval: 0.79–0.88). The second stage regression coefficient was small (= 0.0022) and not statistically significant at a conventional level. Conclusion From a welfare policy point of view, for men, the subsidy scheme has not succeeded to redistribute resources so that dental services are accessible independent of their social status.

• Fardal, Øystein; Skau, Irene & Grytten, Jostein Ivar (2020). Familial tendency as a determinant of tooth loss during long-term periodontal therapy. Journal of Clinical Periodontology. ISSN 0303-6979. 47(2), p. 213–222. doi: 10.1111/jcpe.13219. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Aim Little evidence exists on how familial tendencies affect the long‐term success of periodontal therapy. The aim of this study was to compare outcomes for two generations and their control patients treated in the same private practice. Materials/methods Parents and their children were observed for tooth loss between 1986 and 2017. Matching control groups were identified from the same practice, one for the parent and one for the children group. The control patients had no close family members with a history of periodontal diseases. Both the generations and control groups completed a similar course of periodontal therapy. The matching strategy aimed at making the groups as similar as possible with respect to well‐known risk and prognostic factors. The data were analysed by multiple regression where the outcome was the number of teeth lost due to periodontal disease. Results A total of 435 patients were identified (148 parents, 154 children and 133 controls). 72 parents and 61 children (133) had more than 5 years follow‐up (average 15.5 and 12.9 years, respectively). Balancing tests showed that the matching was successful. 65% of tooth loss was attributable to close family history. The regression showed that the parent generation lost 1.02 more teeth than the controls, while the children lost 0.61 more teeth. Conclusion Having close family members with a history of periodontal diseases is a strong prognostic factor affecting the long‐term outcome of periodontal therapy.

• Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Bukholm, Ida Rashida Khan; Blich, Carl Christian; Rongen, Gunnar & Skau, Irene (2019). Norsk pasientskadeerstatning - diagnostikk og behandlingssvikt. En oversikt. Den norske tannlegeforenings Tidende. ISSN 0029-2303. 129, p. 1088–1095. Full text in Research Archive
• Eskild, Anne; Sommerfelt, Silje; Skau, Irene & Grytten, Jostein Ivar (2019). Offspring birthweight and placental weight in immigrant women from conflict-zone countries; does length of residence in the host country matter? A population study in Norway. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica. ISSN 0001-6349. p. 1–8. doi: 10.1111/aogs.13777. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Introduction We aimed to estimate differences in offspring birthweight and placental weight between Norwegian women and immigrants in Norway from countries with armed conflicts. We also studied whether length of residence in Norway was associated with offspring birthweight and placental weight. Material and methods We included in our study all singleton births in Norway at gestational week 28 or beyond during the years 1999‐2014, to mothers who were born in Somalia, Afghanistan, Iraq (total immigrants n = 18 817), or Norway (n = 668 439). Data were obtained from The Medical Birth Registry of Norway and the Central Person Registry of Norway. We estimated the differences between Norwegian and immigrant women in mean offspring birthweight and mean placental weight by applying linear regression analyses. Adjustments were made for maternal age, parity, year of delivery, gestational age at delivery, preeclampsia, and diabetes. Results The immigrant women had 206 g (95% CI 199 to 213 g) lower mean offspring birthweight and 16 g (95% CI 14 to 18 g) lower mean placental weight than Norwegian women. Immigrant women with ≥5 years of residence in Norway had higher offspring birthweight (40 g) and higher placental weight (17 g) than immigrant women with <5 years of residence. Conclusions Immigrant mothers from Somalia, Afghanistan, and Iraq gave birth to infants and placentas with lower weight than Norwegian women. However, the difference between Norwegian women and immigrant women was reduced by length of residence in Norway.

• Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Skau, Irene; Sørensen, Rune Jørgen & Eskild, Anne (2018). Does the Use of Diagnostic Technology Reduce Fetal Mortality? Health Services Research (HSR). ISSN 0017-9124. 53(6), p. 4437–4459. doi: 10.1111/1475-6773.12721. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Objective: To examine the effect that the introduction of new diagnostic technology in obstetric care has had on fetal death. Data Source The Medical Birth Registry of Norway provided detailed medical information for approximately 1.2 million deliveries from 1967 to 1995. Information about diagnostic technology was collected directly from the maternity units, using a questionnaire. Study Design: The data were analyzed using a hospital fixed‐effects regression with fetal mortality as the outcome measure. The key independent variables were the introduction of ultrasound and electronic fetal monitoring at each maternity ward. Hospital‐specific trends and risk factors of the mother were included as control variables. The richness of the data allowed us to perform several robustness tests. Principal Finding: The introduction of ultrasound caused a significant drop in fetal mortality rate, while the introduction of electronic fetal monitoring had no effect on the rate. In the population as a whole, ultrasound contributed to a reduction in fetal deaths of nearly 20 percent. For post‐term deliveries, the reduction was well over 50 percent. Conclusion: The introduction of ultrasound made a major contribution to the decline in fetal mortality at the end of the last century.

• Grytten, Jostein Ivar & Skau, Irene (2018). Do Patients with More Education Receive More Subsidized Dental Care? Evidence from a Natural Experiment Using the Introduction of a School Reform in Norway as an Instrumental Variable. Medical Care. ISSN 0025-7079. 56(10), p. 877–882. doi: 10.1097/MLR.0000000000000976. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background: In Norway, for several dental conditions, a substantial part of treatment costs are reimbursed by the National Insurance Scheme. Ideally, the probability of receiving subsidized dental care (SDC) should be independent of social determinants of health, such as education, so that dental services are accessible to everyone independent of their social status. Objective: The main objective of this study was to estimate the causal effect of education on the probability of receiving SDC in the adult Norwegian population. Research Design: During the period 1960-1972, all municipalities in Norway were required to increase the number of compulsory years of education from 7 to 9 years. This education reform was used to create exogenous variation in the education variable. Since municipalities implemented the reform at different times, we have both cross-sectional and time series variation in the reform instrument. Thus we were able to estimate the effect of education on the probability of receiving SDC by controlling for municipality fixed effects and trend variables. Subjects: This study included all Norwegian adults, born during the period of 1947-1958. Measures: Information about education (number of years), whether the individuals had received SDC, place of residence (municipality) was collected. Results: The probability of receiving SDC was found to increase by 2 percentage points per additional year of education. Conclusion: People with the most resources benefit the most from a universal welfare scheme that is addressed to reach everybody. We suggest providing information about the subsidy scheme in a way that is easily available and understandable to all individuals, independent of their level of education.

• Grytten, Jostein Ivar & Skau, Irene (2017). The impact of education on the probability of receiving periodontal treatment. Causal effects measured by using the introduction of a school reform in Norway. Social Science and Medicine. ISSN 0277-9536. 188, p. 128–136. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.07.011. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The aim of the present study was to estimate the causal effect of education on the probability of receiving periodontal treatment in the adult Norwegian population. In Norway, a substantial part of the cost of periodontal treatment is subsidized by the National Insurance Scheme. In that case, one might expect that the influence of individual resources, such as education, on receiving treatment would be reduced or eliminated. Causal effects were estimated by using data on a school reform in Norway. During the period 1960–1972, all municipalities in Norway were required to increase the number of compulsory years of schooling from seven to nine years. The education reform was used to create exogenous variation in the education variable. The education data were combined with large sets of data from the Norwegian Health Economics Administration and Statistics Norway. Since municipalities implemented the reform at different times, we have both cross-sectional and time-series variation in the reform instrument. Thus we were able to estimate the effect of education on the probability of receiving periodontal treatment by controlling for municipality fixed effects and trend variables. The probability of receiving periodontal treatment increased by 1.4–1.8 percentage points per additional year of schooling. This is a reasonably strong effect, which indicates that policies to increase the level of education in the population can be an effective tool to improve oral health, including periodontal health.

• Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Skau, Irene & Sørensen, Rune Jørgen (2017). The impact of the mass media on obstetricians' behavior in Norway. Health Policy. ISSN 0168-8510. 121(9), p. 986–993. doi: 10.1016/j.healthpol.2017.07.007. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Little is known about how physicians and hospitals respond to the risk of being negatively exposed in the mass media. We assume that newspapers will cover events more closely in the areas where they have most of their circulation. Within such areas the likelihood of negative publicity increases. The research question is whether obstetricians respond to negative newspaper coverage by choosing the least risky method of delivery, i.e. Caesarean section. This was tested on a large set of data from the Medical Birth Registry of Norway for the period 2000–2011. The Registry contains detailed medical information about all deliveries, for both the mother and the infant. This set of data was merged with a set of data that contained information about newspaper coverage for the municipalities in which all hospitals were located. Altogether, more than 620 000 deliveries in 46 municipalities were included in the study. The data were analyzed using a hospital fixed effects regression. The main result was that newspaper coverage had a significant positive effect on the probability of having a Caesarean section. Several supplementary analyses supported the main finding. Altogether, our results indicate that obstetricians are sensitive to the risk of being exposed in the mass media. This is likely to be because obstetricians care about their reputation.

• Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Monkerud, Lars Chr.; Skau, Irene; Eskild, Anne; Sørensen, Rune Jørgen & Saugstad, Ola Didrik (2016). Saving Newborn Babies – The Benefits of Interventions in Neonatal Care in Norway over More Than 40 Years. Health Economics. ISSN 1057-9230. 26(3), p. 352–370. doi: 10.1002/hec.3314. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The aim of this study was to examine the effect that the introduction of new medical interventions at birth has had on mortality among newborn babies in Norway during the period 1967–2011. During this period, there has been a significant decline in mortality, in particular for low birth weight infants. We identified four interventions that together explained about 50% of the decline in early neonatal and infant mortality: ventilators, antenatal steroids, surfactant and insure. The analyses were performed on a large set of data, encompassing more than 1.6 million deliveries (Medical Birth Registry of Norway). The richness of the data allowed us to perform several robustness tests. Our study indicates that the introduction of new medical interventions has been a very important channel through which the decline in mortality among newborn babies occurred during the second half of the last century.

• Khan, Sadia Nazir; Skau, Irene; Grytten, Jostein Ivar & Saxegaard, Erik (2015). Obstruktivt søvnapnésyndrom - kunnskap og klinisk erfaring blant et utvalg norske tannleger. Den norske tannlegeforenings Tidende. ISSN 0029-2303. 125(9), p. 794–798. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Skau, Irene & Sørensen, Rune Jørgen (2014). Educated mothers, healthy infants. The impact of a school reform on the birth weight of Norwegian infants 1967-2005. Social Science and Medicine. ISSN 0277-9536. 105, p. 84–92. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.01.008. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Birth weight is an important predictor of health and success in later life. Little is known about the effect of mothers’ education on birth weight. A few causal analyses have been done, but they show conflicting results. We estimated the effect of mothers’ education on birth weight by using data on a school reform in Norway. During the period 1960-1972, all municipalities in Norway were required to increase the number of compulsory years of schooling from seven to nine years. We used this education reform to create exogenous variation in the education variable. The education data were combined with large sets of data from the Medical Birth Registry and Statistics Norway. Since municipalities implemented the reform at different times, we have cross-sectional as well as time-series variation in the reform instrument. In the analyses, we controlled for municipality fixed effects, municipality-specific time-trends and mothers’ and infants’ year of birth. Using this procedure we found a fairly large effect of mothers’ education on birth weight. Increasing mothers’ education reduces the likelihood of low birth weight, even in a publically financed health care system. In interpreting these results it is important to keep in mind that we have examined only one channel, which is through birth weight, through which education may explain differences in health. There are other potential channels that should be explored by future research. In particular, it would be of interest to examine whether education has causal effects on the broader determinants of health, such as psychopathology, social capital and networks, and family stress and dysfunction.

• Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Monkerud, Lars Christian; Skau, Irene & Sørensen, Rune Jørgen (2014). Regionalization and local Hospital closure in Norwegian maternity care - The effect on neonatal and infant mortality. Health Services Research (HSR). ISSN 0017-9124. 49(4), p. 1184–1204. doi: 10.1111/1475-6773.12153. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Skau, Irene & Holst, Dorthe (2014). Tannhelsetjenestetilbudet blant voksenbefolkningen i Norge : behandlingsprofiler og tilgjengelighet til tannlegen. Den norske tannlegeforenings Tidende. ISSN 0029-2303. 124(4), p. 276–283. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Skau, Irene & Sørensen, Rune Jørgen (2013). Do Mothers Decide? The Impact of Preferences in Healthcare. The Journal of human resources. ISSN 0022-166X. 48(1), p. 142–168. doi: 10.3368/jhr.48.1.142. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Holst, Dorthe & Skau, Irene (2013). Per capita remuneration of dentists and the quality of dental services. Community Dentistry and Oral Epidemiology. ISSN 0301-5661. 41(5), p. 395–400. doi: 10.1111/cdoe.12034. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Holst, Dorthe & Skau, Irene (2012). Demand for and utilization of dental services according to household income in the adult population in Norway. Community Dentistry and Oral Epidemiology. ISSN 0301-5661. 40(4), p. 297–305. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0528.2011.00659.x. Full text in Research Archive
• Holst, Dorthe; Skau, Irene; Klock, Kristin; Gimmestad, Anne Løvberg & Grytten, Jostein Ivar (2012). Synspunkter på arbeidsforhold i tannhelsetjenesten : tannlegestudenter i Oslo og Bergen 2001-2009. Den norske tannlegeforenings Tidende. ISSN 0029-2303. 122(3), p. 200–205. Full text in Research Archive
• Holst, Dorthe; Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Skau, Irene & Berge, Knut (2012). Synspunkter på arbeidsforhold før og etter innføring av fastlønn med per capita avlønning. Den norske tannlegeforenings Tidende. ISSN 0029-2303. 122(11), p. 866–871. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Monkerud, Lars Christian; Hagen, Terje P.; Sørensen, Rune Jørgen; Eskild, Anne & Skau, Irene (2011). The impact of hospital revenue on the increase in Caesarean sections in Norway. A panel data analysis of hospitals 1976-2005. BMC Health Services Research. 11. doi: 10.1186/1472-6963-11-267. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background There has been a marked increase in the number of Caesarean sections in many countries during the last decades. In several countries, Caesarean sections are carried out in more than 20 per cent of births. These high Caesarean section rates give cause for concern, both from an economic and a medical perspective. A general opinion among epidemiologists is that the increase in the number of Caesarean sections during the last decade has been greater than could be expected in relation to medical risk factors. Therefore, other explanations must be sought. We studied one potential explanation; the effect that the increase in hospital revenue per bed during the period 1976-2005 has had on the Caesarean section rate in Norway. During this period, hospital revenue increased by about 260% (adjusted for inflation). Methods The analyses were carried out using data from the Medical Birth Registry 1976-2005 from Norway. The data were merged with data about hospital revenue, which were obtained from Statistics Norway. The analyses were carried out using annual data from 46 hospitals. A fixed effect regression model was estimated. Relevant medical control variables were included. Results The elasticity of the Caesarean section rate with respect to hospital revenue per bed was 0.13 (p < 0.05). This represents an increase in the Caesarean section rate from the basis year 1976 to the final year 2005 of about 35 per cent. Most of the variables measuring characteristics of the health status of the mother and child had the expected effects. Conclusion The increase in hospital revenue explains only a small part of the increase in the Caesarean section rate in Norway during the last three decades. The increase in the Caesarean section rate is considerably greater than could be expected, based on the increase in hospital revenue alone. The strength of our study is that we have estimated a cause and effect relationship. This was done by using fixed effects for hospitals, a lagged revenue variable and by including an extensive set of control variables for the risk factors of the mother and the baby.

• Carlsen, Fredrik; Grytten, Jostein Ivar & Skau, Irene (2011). Physician response to fee changes: using inheritance as a quasi-natural experiment. Applied Economics. ISSN 0003-6846. 43(15), p. 1913–1922. doi: 10.1080/00036840902837092. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  We used data on inheritance received by Norwegian primary care physicians and their spouses to study how wealth affects the amount of medical treatment provided by fee-for-service physicians. The effect of wealth on the number of consultations, and the amount of treatment provided during consultations, was small. Our results suggest that the income effect of fee changes on service provision of fee-for-service physicians is moderate, implying that fee regulation is an effective means of controlling spending on primary care physician services.

• Dahl, Kari Elisabeth; Wang, Nina Johanne; Skau, Irene & Øhrn, K. (2011). Oral health-related quality of life and associated factors in Norwegian adults. Acta Odontologica Scandinavica. ISSN 0001-6357. 69(4), p. 208–214. doi: 10.3109/00016357.2010.549502. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Skau, Irene & Sørensen, Rune Jørgen (2011). Do expert patients get better treatment than others? Agency discrimination and statistical discrimination in obstetrics. Journal of Health Economics. ISSN 0167-6296. 30(1), p. 163–180. doi: 10.1016/j.jhealeco.2010.10.004. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  We address models that can explain why expert patients (obstetricians, midwives and doctors) are treated better than non-experts (mainly non-medical training). Models of statistical discrimination show that benevolent doctors treat expert patients better, since experts are better at communicating with the doctor. Agency theory suggests that doctors have an incentive to limit hospital costs by distorting information to non-expert patients, but not to expert patients. The hypotheses were tested on a large set of data, which contained information about the highest education of the parents, and detailed medical information about all births in Norway during the period 1967 to 2005 (Medical Birth Registry). The empirical analyses show that expert parents have a higher rate of Caesarean section than non-expert parents. The educational disparities were considerable 40 years ago, but have become markedly less over time. The analyses provide support for statistical discrimination theory, though agency theory cannot be totally excluded.

• Holst, Dorthe & Skau, Irene (2010). Tenner og tannstatus i den voksne befolkning i Norge hvor stor er den sosiale ulikheten? Den norske tannlegeforenings Tidende. ISSN 0029-2303. 120(3), p. 164–169. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Skau, Irene & Stenvik, Arild (2010). Distribution of orthodontic services in Norway. Community Dentistry and Oral Epidemiology. ISSN 0301-5661. 38(3), p. 267–273. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0528.2010.00530.x. Full text in Research Archive
• Salvesen, Eirik Aasland; Leknes, Knut N.; Skau, Irene & Grytten, Jostein (2009). Spesialistpraksis i periodonti - en kartlegging av behandlingsmønstre. Den norske tannlegeforenings Tidende. ISSN 0029-2303. 119(13), p. 850–854. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein; Carlsen, Fredrik & Skau, Irene (2009). Services production and patient satisfaction in primary care. Health Policy. ISSN 0168-8510. 89(3), p. 312–321. doi: 10.1016/j.healthpol.2008.06.006. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The institutional setting for the study was the primary physician service in Norway, where there is a regular general practitioner scheme. Each inhabitant has a statutory right to be registered with a regular general practitioner. There are large differences between physicians in service production. Objective: We studied whether difference in services production between physicians has an effect on how satisfied patients are with the services that are provided. Methodology: Data about patient satisfaction were obtained from a survey of a representative sample of the population. We obtained data about how satisfied the respondents were with: waiting time to get an appointment, amount of time the physician spent with them, and to what extent they perceived that the physician took their medical problems seriously. The survey data were merged with data on service production for the primary physician that the respondent was registered with. Service production was measured as the number of consultations per person on the list. Results: There was a positive and relatively strong association between the level of service production of the general practitioners and patient satisfaction with waiting time for a consultation. There was no association between the level of service production and the two other measures of patient satisfaction. Conclusion: The results provide evidence about one of several factors that should be taken into account when deciding on future health manpower policies with respect to primary physician services in Norway.

• Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Holst, Dorthe & Skau, Irene (2009). Incentives and remuneration systems in dental services. International Journal of Health Care Finance and Economics. ISSN 1389-6563. 9(3), p. 259–278. doi: 10.1007/s10754-008-9050-2. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar & Skau, Irene (2009). Specialization and competition in dental health services. Health Economics. ISSN 1057-9230. 18(4), p. 457–466. doi: 10.1002/hec.1377. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein; Carlsen, Fredrik & Skau, Irene (2008). Primary physicians' response to changes in fees. European Journal of Health Economics. ISSN 1618-7598. 9(2), p. 117–125. doi: 10.1007/s10198-007-0049-2. Full text in Research Archive
• Skau, Irene; Bårdsen, Asgeir & Grytten, Jostein (2007). Spesialistpraksis i endodonti 2007. Den norske tannlegeforenings Tidende. ISSN 0029-2303. 117(11), p. 668–671. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein; Skau, Irene & Holst, Dorthe (2007). Organisasjonsformer i privat tannlegepraksis i Norge. Den norske tannlegeforenings Tidende. ISSN 0029-2303. 117(4), p. 196–200. Full text in Research Archive
• Carlsen, Fredrik; Grytten, Jostein; Kjelvik, Julie & Skau, Irene (2007). Better primary physician services lead to fewer hospital admissions. European Journal of Health Economics. ISSN 1618-7598. 8(1), p. 17–24. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein & Skau, Irene (2007). Honorarer i privat tannlegepraksis i Norge 2006. Den norske tannlegeforenings Tidende. ISSN 0029-2303. 117(7), p. 380–384. Full text in Research Archive
• Carlsen, Fredrik; Grytten, Jostein; Kjelvik, Julie & Skau, Irene (2007). Better primary physician services lead to fewer hospital admissions. European Journal of Health Economics. ISSN 1618-7598. 8(1), p. 17–24. doi: 10.1007/s10198-006-0001-x. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The aim of the study was to examine whether improved quality of primary physician services, measured by patient satisfaction, leads to fewer admissions to somatic hospitals. We studied differences in hospital admissions at the municipality level in Norway. In addition to the standard explanatory variables for use of hospitals—gender, age, socio-economic status and travelling distance to the nearest hospital—we also included a measure of patient satisfaction with primary physician services in the municipality. Data on patient satisfaction was obtained from an extensive questionnaire survey of 63,798 respondents. We found a statistically significant negative relationship between patient satisfaction and the number of hospital admissions. This conclusion was robust with regard to the empirical specification, and the effect was large.

• Espeland, Lisen Vivienne; Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Skau, Irene & Stenvik, Arild (2007). Utdanningsbehov og utviklingstrekk i kjeveortopedisk praksis 1992-2007. Den norske tannlegeforenings Tidende. ISSN 0029-2303. 117(11), p. 662–665. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Skau, Irene & Holst, Dorthe (2006). Behandlingskapasitet for voksne i privat og offentlig tannhelsetjeneste i Norge. Den norske tannlegeforenings Tidende. ISSN 0029-2303. 116(4), p. 212–216. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Holst, Dorthe & Skau, Irene (2006). Incentiver og avlønningssystemer i tannhelsetjenesten. Erfaringer fra Østfold. Den norske tannlegeforenings Tidende. ISSN 0029-2303. 116(7), p. 420–428. Full text in Research Archive
• Carlsen, Fredrik; Grytten, Jostein; Kjelvik, Julie & Skau, Irene (2006). Bedre allmennlegetjeneste gir mindre bruk av spesialisthelsetjenester. Tidsskrift for velferdsforskning. ISSN 0809-2052. 9(3), p. 159–169. Full text in Research Archive
• Holst, Dorthe; Skau, Irene & Grytten, Jostein Ivar (2005). Egenvurdert tannhelse, generell helse og tannstatus i den voksne befolkningen i Norge i 2004. Den norske tannlegeforenings Tidende. ISSN 0029-2303. 115(10), p. 576–580. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein; Skau, Irene & Sørensen, Rune J. (2005). Fastlegereformen og folketrygdens utgifter til allmennlegetjenesten. Tidsskrift for Den norske legeforening (Tidsskriftet). ISSN 0029-2001. 125, p. 2812–4. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein; Skau, Irene & Sørensen, Rune J. (2005). Kjennetegn ved solo- og gruppepraksis i norsk allmennmedisin. Tidsskrift for Den norske legeforening (Tidsskriftet). ISSN 0029-2001. 125, p. 1357–1360. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Skau, Irene & Sørensen, Rune J. (2005). Fastlegereformen og folketrygdens utgifter til allmennlegetjenesten. Tidsskrift for Den norske legeforening (Tidsskriftet). ISSN 0029-2001. 125(20), p. 2812–2814. Full text in Research Archive
• Carlsen, Fredrik; Grytten, Jostein Ivar & Skau, Irene (2005). Befolkningens tilfredshet med sykehusene før og etter sykehusreformen. Tidsskrift for Den norske legeforening (Tidsskriftet). ISSN 0029-2001. 125(15), p. 2034–2037. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Skau, Irene & Sørensen, Rune J. (2005). Kjennetegn ved solo- og gruppepraksiser i norsk allmennmedisin. Tidsskrift for Den norske legeforening (Tidsskriftet). ISSN 0029-2001. 125(10), p. 1357–1360. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Skau, Irene & Aasland, Olav (2005). Arbeidsbelastningen blant kvinnelige og mannlige fastleger. Tidsskrift for Den norske legeforening (Tidsskriftet). ISSN 0029-2001. 125, p. 1850–1852. Full text in Research Archive
• Holst, Dorthe; Grytten, Jostein Ivar & Skau, Irene (2005). Den voksne befolknings bruk av tannhelsetjenester i Norge i 2004. Den norske tannlegeforenings Tidende. ISSN 0029-2303. 115(4), p. 212–216. Full text in Research Archive
• Skau, Irene; Holst, Dorthe & Grytten, Jostein Ivar (2005). Behandlingspanorama og innkallingsintervaller i privatallmennpraksis. Den norske tannlegeforenings Tidende. ISSN 0029-2303. p. 764–768. Full text in Research Archive

View all works in NVA

• Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Sørensen, Rune Jørgen & Skau, Irene (2025). Maternal Education and Long-term Health Outcomes for the Next Generation. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar & Skau, Irene (2025). Is there overuse of orthodontic treatment among children in Norway? Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Skau, Irene & Sørensen, Rune Jørgen (2025). Education and health outcomes. Causal effects and family spillovers. Full text in Research Archive
• Jiang, Nan; Skau, Irene; Choi, Hye Jung & Grytten, Jostein Ivar (2024). Covid-19: access to subsidized dental care for adults in Norway. Full text in Research Archive
• Fardal, Øystein; Skau, Irene & Grytten, Jostein Ivar (2024). Periodontal Treatment of Norwegian Patients With Rare Diseases: A Commentary. International Dental Journal. ISSN 0020-6539. 74, p. 50–57. doi: 10.1016/j.identj.2023.07.009. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar & Skau, Irene (2024). Elderly people in Norway: demography, dental treatment needs and delivery of dental services. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar & Skau, Irene (2024). Mothers' level of education and infant health. Causal effects measured by using the introduction of a school reform. Full text in Research Archive
• Fardal, Øystein; Skau, Irene & Grytten, Jostein Ivar (2024). Lang tids behandling av periodontitt bevarer tennene for de fleste pasienter. Den norske tannlegeforenings Tidende. ISSN 0029-2303. 134, p. 212–213. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar & Skau, Irene (2023). Mothers' level of education and infant health. Causal effects measured by using the introduction of a school reform in Norway. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar & Skau, Irene (2023). Mothers' level of education and infant health. Causal effects measured by using the introduction of a school reform in Norway. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Dobloug, Andreas & Skau, Irene (2023). Den voksne befolkningen i Innlandet - hva er status på tannhelsefeltet? Full text in Research Archive
• Jiang, Nan; Skau, Irene; Grytten, Jostein Ivar & Kinge, Jonas Minet (2022). Access to orthodontic treatment among children by household income in Norway. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Blix, Ellen; Skau, Irene & Eskild, Anne (2022). STAN and fetal deaths. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica. ISSN 0001-6349. 101(12), p. 1460–1461. doi: 10.1111/aogs.14472. Full text in Research Archive
• Eskild, Anne; Skau, Irene; Haavaldsen, Camilla & Grytten, Jostein Ivar (2021). Ultralyd redder fosterliv. 141(10). doi: 10.4045/tidsskr.21.0256. Full text in Research Archive
• Blix, Ellen; Eskild, Anne; Skau, Irene & Grytten, Jostein Ivar (2019). Har innføringen av STAN-teknologien i Norge ført til færre dødfødsler, dødsfall hos nyfødte eller at færre barn blir født med lav apgar-skår? En populasjonstudie. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar & Skau, Irene (2019). Causal effect of education on receiving subsidized fixed prosthodontic treatment. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Skau, Irene; Dobloug, Andreas & Barkvoll, Pål (2015). Fremtidig behov for tannleger: Trengs det 1500 flere om 20 år? 125, p. 384–388. Full text in Research Archive
• Dahl, Kari Elisabeth; Wang, Nina Johanne; Skau, Irene & Øhrn, K. (2010). Oral health-related quality of life and associated factors in Norwegian adults. Full text in Research Archive
• Dahl, Kari Elisabeth; Wang, Nina Johanne; Skau, Irene & Øhrn, Kerstin (2010). Betydningen antall tenner og tannhelsevaner har for oral-helserelatert livskvalitet. Full text in Research Archive
• Sørensen, Rune Jørgen; Eskild, Anne; Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Hagen, Terje P.; Skau, Irene & Moen, Helga (2008). The impact of hospital financing systems on cesarean births in Norway, 1970-2006. Handelshøyskolen BI. Full text in Research Archive
• Carlsen, Fredrik; Grytten, Jostein & Skau, Irene (2007). Service Production and Patient Satisfaction in Primary Care. Institutt for samfunnsøkonomi. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar & Skau, Irene (2007). Spesialistpraksisen i Endodonti 2007. 7Letras. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar & Skau, Irene (2007). Spesialistpraksisen i Protetikk 2007. 7Letras. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar & Skau, Irene (2007). Spesialistpraksisen i Oral Kirurgi. 7Letras. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar & Skau, Irene (2007). Spesialistpraksisen i Periodonti 2007. 7Letras. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar & Skau, Irene (2007). Kjeveortopedisk praksis i 2006. Universitetet i Oslo. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein Ivar & Skau, Irene (2007). Honorarer og Inntekter i Privat tannlegepraksis 2006. 7Letras. Full text in Research Archive
• Carlsen, Fredrik; Skau, Irene & Grytten, Jostein (2006). Primary Physicians’ Response to Changes in Fees. Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige universitet. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The study examines how the service production of primary physicians in Norway is influenced by changes in fees. The data represent about 2 650 fee-for-service physicians for the years 1995-2000. We constructed a variable that made it possible to estimate income effects of fee changes on service levels. Service production was measured by the number of consultations per physician, the number of laboratory tests per consultation, and the proportion of consultations lasting more than 20 minutes. Our main finding is that fee changes have no income effect on service production. Our results imply that fee regulation can be an effective means of controlling physicians’ income, and therefore government expenditure on primary physician services.

• Skau, Irene; Holst, Dorthe & Grytten, Jostein Ivar (2006). Effekter av ny studieplan ved Odontologisk fakultet. Spørreundersøkelse blant tannleger utdannet før og etter Oslo96. Universitetet i Oslo. Full text in Research Archive
• Grytten, Jostein; Sørensen, Rune J. & Skau, Irene (2005). Fastlegeordningen - marked, legedekning og tilgjengelighet. Handelshøyskolen BI. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Myndighetenes mål med fastlegereformen var bedre tilgjengelighet, større valgfrihet og økt kvalitet i allmennlegetjenesten. Enkeltleger har fått ansvar for en avgrenset gruppe med pasienter (listepasientene), pasientene har fått lovestet rett til valg av lege, og ressursbruken i allmennlegetjenesten er økt vesentlig. I rapporten belyses effekter av disse tiltakene. Oppmerksomhet vies også effektene for pasienter med kroniske sykdommer og/eller funksjonshemminger. Rapporten er basert på flere datakilder, hvorpå de viktigst er: en intervjuundersøkelse blant allmennleger i regi av Handelshøyskolen BI, Universitetet i Oslo og Legeforeningens forskningsinstitutt (Allmennlegeundersøkelsen 2002), registerdata fra Rikstrygdeverket (Legeregningskontrollen 2001-2003) og en omfattende befolkningsundersøkelse foretatt av Statistisk sentralbyrå (Levekårsundersøkelsen 2002).

• Grytten, Jostein Ivar; Sørensen, Rune & Skau, Irene (2005). Fastlegeordningen: marked, legedekning og tilgjengelighet. Forskningsrapport 4/2005. Handelhøyskolen BI. Full text in Research Archive

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